Channel Title: Knowing Anatomy Channel Description: Your one-stop destination for mastering the MBBS curriculum and honing your clinical skills! Welcome to Knowing Anatomy! My channel simplifies complex medical subjects like: Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry Pathology, Microbiology, Pharmacology ENT, Ophthalmology, Social Medicine, General Medicine, General Surgery Obstetrics, Gynecology, Pediatrics, Psychiatry Dermatology, Radiology, Anesthesia, and more! 💡 "If we understand something well, we remember it better." That’s why my videos focus on making learning easier, more engaging, and crystal-clear. ⏩ In a hurry? Watch these videos at 1.5x speed for quick learning! Thank you for choosing Knowing Anatomy—your partner in acing MBBS and becoming a confident healthcare professional. Don’t forget to like, subscribe, and hit the bell icon for updates! My Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/dr.kayteee?igsh=MXZiMW1wMmI2cm81Yg== <video> CEAP classification of Venous Ulcers | General Surgery | Knowing Anatomy Description: CEAP clinical score The C or clinical score from the CEAP classification ranges from C0 which means absolutely no venous disease that can be seen or felt in the legs to C6 which means an open and active venous leg ulcer. However, whenever using the CEAP clinical score, it is essential to remember that it is only a clinical score. It is quite possible that if a venous duplex ultrasound scan is performed (which should always be the case when assessing any venous disease) then more often than not, worse venous diseases are found deeper inside the leg that cannot be seen by clinical examination alone. Hence no doctor or nurse who knows anything about varicose veins or vein problems will ever give a full opinion on the clinical grading alone. Without having a venous duplex ultrasound scan performed by a specialist vascular scientist, who can examine all of the veins in the legs and pelvis to look for underlying venous disease, a full diagnosis cannot be given. </video> <video> HYDROCELE | General Surgery | SIMPLE Video Lecture | KNOWING ANATOMY Description: Hydrocele refers to a collection of serous fluid between the parietal and visceral layers of the tunica vaginalis. Patients present with (typically) a non-tender scrotal swelling. Hydroceles may be associated with (communicating hydrocele) or without (non-communicating hydrocele) a patent processus vaginalis. Treatment depends on the underlying aetiology, age and symptomatic burden of the hydrocele. NOTE: In rare cases a similar condition may be seen in women where fluid accumulates in the canal of Nuck. Types There are two major types of hydrocele: communicating and non-communicating. Communicating These occur due to the failure of normal closure of the processus vaginalis. This allows the passage of peritoneal fluid into the tunica vaginalis. Communicating hydroceles are therefore considered congenital though they may present in older children, adolescents and even adults. It should be noted that a patent processus vaginalis is relatively common. It is estimated to be present in 80-94% of newborns and 20% of adults. Non-communicating There is no abnormal connection with the peritoneal cavity as seen in communicating hydroceles. Instead, fluid is produced by the mesothelial lining of the tunica vaginalis. They occur when there is an imbalance between fluid production and absorption. Many are idiopathic but identifiable triggers include trauma, infection (e.g. epididymo-orchitis) and testicular torsion. Others Hydrocele of the spermatic cord: segmental closure of the processus vaginalis results in an isolated segment of fluid. Abdomino-scrotal hydrocele: rarely a hydrocele enlarges, propagates up the inguinal canal and develops an abdominal component. Clinical features Patients present with scrotal swelling. The swelling is typically described as: Smooth Non-reducible Demonstrating transillumination with a pen-torch Non-tender It may be possible to differentiate between communicating and non-communicating hydroceles based on its features. Communicating hydroceles tend to change size and are related to ambulation (increasing when standing for prolonged periods). In adults communicating hydroceles may present for the first time due to increases in intra-abdominal pressure, fluid overload or continuous peritoneal ambulatory dialysis. Investigations A testicular USS is the investigation of choice. Testicular USS has excellent sensitivity. Testicular USS is recommended for the following suspected conditions: If there is any concern regarding the possibility of cancer then a patient should be referred for an urgent ultrasound. Importantly, a hydrocele might be associated with testicular cancer, particularly in younger patients, and mask the presentation. It should always be remembered that a hydrocele may occur secondary to epididymo-orchitis, testicular torsion or testicular cancer. Inguinal hernias can pass into the scrotal sac and present as an extra-testicular swelling. If these diagnoses are suspected the patient should be investigated, managed, and referred based on the individual presentation. Management Management of hydroceles depend on the age, underlying cause, association with hernia and symptoms present. Infants The vast majority of simple hydroceles in infants resolve during the first year of life. Patients should have ongoing observation to ensure resolution occurs and to identify the development of an inguinal hernia. Depending on the resource reviewed different cut-offs are described from where surgical intervention should be considered: Late-onset hydroceles In patients with suspected idiopathic non-communicating hydroceles, a period of observation may be taken. Spontaneous resolution may be seen in up to 75% of cases. Scrotal support can help adults with symptoms of discomfort. Surgery is considered where cases are persistent or symptomatic. Communicating hydroceles that develop above the age of two are somewhat less likely to resolve and may increase the risk of an incarcerated inguinal hernia. Elective surgical management should be considered. Hydroceles secondary to infection or trauma will tend to resolve with time or treatment of the underlying cause. Hydroceles may occur as a complication of varicocelectomy (surgery to treat a varicocele). In this setting conservative management should be trialled as the vast majority will resolve with time. Aspiration of a hydrocele is simple and may give initial relief, however, recurrence is very common. When surgery is required in older patients there are a number of options which include: Lord’s procedure: this involves plication of the sac. Tends to be used for small-medium sized hydroceles with a thin sac. It has a reduced risk of haematoma when compared to the Jaboulay procedure. Jaboulay procedure: the sac is opened drained, partially excised, everted and sutured behind the testicle. Tends to be used for larger hydroceles with a thick sac. Greater risk of haematoma. </video> <video> LACRIMAL APPARATUS ANATOMY | OPHTHALMOLOGY | KNOWING ANATOMY Description: The lacrimal apparatus, also known as the tear system, is a network of glands, sacs, and ducts that lubricates and protects the eyes. The anatomy of the lacrimal apparatus includes: Lacrimal glands: These exocrine glands are located above the eyeball and secrete tears. The lacrimal gland is made up of a larger orbital part and a smaller palpebral part. Lacrimal puncta: These openings are located on the upper and lower eyelids, and tears enter the lacrimal apparatus through them. The puncta are pale in color and are not usually visible unless the eyelid is everted. Canaliculi: These vertical canals extend from the eyelid margin and widen to form the ampulla. The canaliculi then continue horizontally along the arc of the eyelid. Lacrimal sac: The tears pass into the lacrimal sac after entering the canaliculi. Nasolacrimal duct: This duct opens in the inferior meatus of the nose. The lacrimal apparatus's main function is to keep the cornea and conjunctiva moisturized. Tears are important for many functions, including: Protecting the eye from shear forces during blinking and eye movements Maintaining a smooth, transparent optical layer Shielding the eye surface from environmental insults Repelling negatively charged bacteria As people age, the secretory function of the lacrimal glands declines, which can lead to dry eye syndrome. </video> <video> The HMPV Lockdown #anatomy #virus #know #knowledge #mutation #education Description: </video> <video> Pseudophakia | Ophthalmology | Video Lecture | Knowing Anatomy | Dr.Kareema Tabassum Description: Pseudophakia is a condition where an artificial lens, called an intraocular lens IOL, is implanted in the eye after the natural lens is removed. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS! 1.what are the positive findings in a case of pseudophakia? A. history of diminution of vision followed by history of operation and improvement of vision --surgical scar at limbus over sclera or over cornea depending upon the type of surgery done --comparatively deep anterior chamber --pupil colour black with shinning reflex in pupillary area 2.what is pseudophakia? A. literally pseudo means artificial and phakia means lens so pseudophakia is an artificial lens. Usually it is implanted after extraction of Cataractous lens. Then the condition is called pseudophakia. 3.what are types of IOLs? A. depending upon the type of placement = anterior chamber and posterior chamber --depending upon the material = rigid and foldable --depending upon the correction they provide = mono, multifocal and accommodative 4.between anterior chamber and posterior chamber IOL which is better? A. posterior chamber IOL are better than anterior chamber IOL. as they are implanted in posterior chamber in a bag which is normal position of natural lens. --complications are less in posterior chamber IOLs. 5.What are the complications in anterior chamber IOLS? A. loss of endothelial cells leading to bullous keratopathy --uveitis, glaucoma and hyphaema - UGH syndrome 6.what are the complications of posterior chamber IOL implantation? A. complications of PC IOL are fewer -- over or under correction of power decantation of IOL leading to sunset syndrome, sunrise syndrome, lens lost syndrome-may be due to PC rent or zonular loss toxic lens syndrome may be due to ethylene oxide gas with which it is sterilized or due to lens material itself wind shield wiper syndrome due to large capsulorrhexis and small size of lens 7.what are the materials with which intra ocular lenses are made up of? A. rigid IOL are made up of PMMA foldable IOLs are made up of silicone, acrylic, hydrogel, cholomer, can be implanted in 2-2.2mm incision rollable IOL are ultrathin IOLs implanted through 1mm incision..these are made up of hydro gel. 8.what do u understand by unifocal, multifocal, accommodative IOL? A. unifocal-most commonly used having unifocal power. Depending upon the IOL implanted these can make patient emmetropic, myopic or hypermetropic multifocal-have separate optic to focus distant and near, also called pseudo accommodative IOL accommodative IOL- exhibit some anterior movement of optic to improve the near vision. so in multifocal or accommodative IOL patient need not use glasses for both distant and near in unifocal IOL patient need to use glasses for near 9.What do you understand by phakic IOL? A. in addition to aphakic IOL which are implanted after lens extraction special phakic IOL are required to treat refractive error. These are also called implantable contact lenses or ICLs. These are used for correction of myopia greater than 8D.in this technique special type of intra ocular lens can be implanted in the anterior chamber or posterior chamber anterior to natural crystalline lens. 10.can we correct pre existing astigmatism by IOL implantation? A. yes by toric IOLS 11.what do you understand by aspheric IOL? A. These are intra ocular lenses to reduce the spherical aberration 12.what do you understand by aniridia IOL? A. these are cosmetic device to cover the aniridia or partial loss or iris due to trauma .in these lenses around central optical part there is a black diaphragm. 13.what are parts of IOL? A. Optic for refraction and haptic for holding. 14.what is the size of IOL? A. from one end to other end they can be 12-12.5mm for back fixation 13 mm for sulcus fixation. Optic size can be 5.5, 6,6.5mm. 15. how will you sterilize the IOL? A. by ethylene gas 16. what do you understand by glued IOL? A. glued IOL are scleral fixation posterior chamber IOL and an alternative to anterior chamber IOL. these are implanted when there is no posterior capsule. Posterior chamber IOL can be fixated to sclera in ciliary sulcus region with the help of sutures or biological glue. 17.what is power of lens used in emmetropic eye? A. +18D </video> <video> I Feel Really Grateful, Only because of you my dear Subscribers, THANK YOU🌹🙏 #thankyou #nevergiveup Description: </video> <video> MUCOCELE AND RANULA | Surgery | Extravasation and Retention | Video Lecture | Easy | Knowing Anatomy Description: Mucoceles and ranulas are both painless, cyst-like swellings in the mouth that are caused by a disruption in the salivary gland's secretion flow: Mucocele A cyst that originates from the minor salivary glands and is usually found on the lower lip. Mucoceles can also appear on the inner cheek, anterior ventral tongue, or floor of the mouth. Ranula A cyst that originates from the major salivary glands and appears on the floor of the mouth. Ranulas are often caused by a blocked submandibular duct. The swelling resembles a frog's vocal or air sacs, which is why it's called a ranula, where rana means frog and ula means little. Mucoceles and ranulas are usually asymptomatic and resolve on their own, but they can sometimes interfere with speech, swallowing, or respiration. If this happens, they should be treated promptly. Treatment options include: Surgical excision For small mucoceles, the cyst and associated salivary gland tissue are completely excised. For large mucoceles, an unroofing procedure called marsupialization is used. Topical steroids Clobetasol 0.05% is a high-potency topical steroid that can be used to treat multiple superficial mucoceles. Evening primrose oil Gamma-linolenic acid, which is a prostaglandin E precursor, can be used to treat some mucoceles. To prevent the development of oral mucoceles, you can avoid local trauma to the minor salivary glands. </video> <video> Facial Artery | Anatomy | Origin | Branches | Anastomosis | Knowing Anatomy | Description: Source External carotid artery Branches Cervical branches: - Ascending palatine - Tonsillar - Submental - Glandular Facial branches: - Inferior labial - Superior labial - Lateral nasal - Angular Mnemonic: Anna, PLS SIT (Ascending palatine artery, Premasseteric artery, Lateral nasal artery, Submental artery, Superior labial artery, Inferior labial artery, Tonsillar artery) Supplies Muscles and skin of the face The facial artery is a branch of the external carotid artery that supplies the anatomic structures of the superficial face. The facial artery arises from the carotid triangle which is formed by the superior belly of the omohyoid muscle, the sternocleidomastoid, and the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. </video> <video> Gluteal ligaments | Sacrospinous and Sacrotuberous ligament | Anatomy | Knowing anatomy Description: The two primary ligaments of the gluteal region are the sacrotuberous ligament and the sacrospinous ligament. The large sacrotuberous ligament (STL) is continuous from the posterior sacro-iliac ligament and spans the length of the posterior superior iliac spine,the lateral portion of the sacrum, the upper coccyx and connects to the ischial tuberosity of the ischium. The most inferior and superficial fibers of this ligament are continuous with the tendon of the biceps femoris muscle. Functionally, the STL plays a significant role in stabilizing the pelvis through inhibiting nutation (anterior and inferior movement of the sacrum), anatomically it serves as a point of origin for the inferior fibers of the gluteus maximus, and structurally along with the contribution of the sacrospinous ligament, divides the sciatic notch into the greater sciatic foramen and lesser sciatic foramen. This creation of the sciatic foramen created via these two ligaments, is an important anatomical division as the greater sciatic foramen serves as the main route for all arterial and nerve structures transitioning from the pelvis to the gluteal region, while the lesser sciatic foramen serves as the route for arterial and nervous structures entering and leaving the perineum. </video> <video> Venous Ulcer | Varicose Ulcer | General Surgery | Easy Video Lecture | Knowing Anatomy Description: Ulcers are defined as abnormal breaks in the skin or mucous membranes. They can be caused by a wide number of pathologies and have a prevalence of approximately 1%. The majority of lower limb ulcers have a venous origin (80%), with other common causes including arterial insufficiency and diabetic-related neuropathy. Rarely, they can also be caused by infection, trauma, vasculitis or malignancy (typically squamous cell carcinoma). It should be remembered that in patients who are less mobile, ulcers may also be caused by prolonged or excessive pressure over a bony prominence (pressure ulcers), leading to skin breakdown and eventual necrosis. In the hospital setting, these pressure ulcers should be managed by adequate mattresses to aid repositioning and good wound management. Venous Ulcers A venous ulcer is caused by venous insufficiency. They often appear shallow with irregular borders and a granulating base, characteristically located over the medial malleolus. Venous leg ulcers are the most common type of leg ulcer; they are prone to infection and can present with associated cellulitis, Their pathophysiology is poorly understood. It is thought that valvular incompetence or venous outflow obstruction leads to impaired venous return, with the resultant venous hypertension causing the “trapping” of white blood cells in capillaries and the formation of a fibrin cuff around the vessel hindering oxygen transportation into the tissue. The white blood cells subsequently become activated, with the release of inflammatory mediators leading to resultant tissue injury, poor healing, and necrosis. Risk Factors The risk factors for developing a venous ulcer include: Increasing age Pre-existing venous incompetence or history of venous thromboembolism Including varicose veins Pregnancy Obesity or physical inactivity Severe leg injury or trauma Clinical Features Venous ulcers can be painful (particularly worse at the end of the day) and are often found in the gaiter region of the legs (Fig. 1). Associated symptoms of chronic venous disease, such as aching, itching, or a bursting sensation, will be present often before venous leg ulcers appear. On examination, there may be varicose veins with ankle or leg oedema, as well as features associated with venous insufficiency, including varicose eczema or thrombophlebitis, haemosiderin skin staining, lipodermatosclerosis, or atrophie blanche. Investigations The diagnosis of venous ulcers is clinical, with the underlying venous insufficiency confirmed by Duplex Ultrasound. Most commonly venous incompetence occurs at the sapheno-femoral or sapheno-popliteal junctions, although it may occur in any perforator. An Ankle Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) is required to assess for any arterial component to the ulcers and to determine whether compression therapy will be suitable. If infection is suspected (i.e. erythematous or with purulent exudate) then consider microbiology swabs and antibiotics. Take swab cultures if suspecting an associated infection. Consider a thrombophilia and vasculitic screening in young patients, especially if there is a suspicion or family history of prothrombotic and autoimmune diseases. Management Conservative management for venous ulcers warrants leg elevation and increased exercise (promoting the calf muscle pump action which aids venous return). Encourage lifestyle changes, including weight reduction and improved nutrition, as appropriate. Antibiotics should only be prescribed with clinical evidence of a wound infection (most wounds are colonized, therefore swab results should only be acted upon if evidence of infection). The mainstay of management is via multicomponent compression bandaging, changed once or twice every week; 30-75% of venous leg ulcers will heal after six months of compression therapy. Eight randomised clinical trials demonstrated improved time to healing with compression versus no compression treatment. Importantly, the ABPI must be measured as at least greater than 0.6 before any bandaging is applied. Appropriate dressings and emollients are crucial in maintaining surrounding skin health. If there is concurrent varicose veins, these should be treated with endovenous techniques or open surgery*, as improving venous return will allow for the healing of the venous ulcers. *Recent trial data on the use of surgical treatment of varicose veins in patients with venous ulceration demonstrated that surgery decreases the chance of ulcer recurrence (ESCHAR study), and that early treatment of varicose veins decreases the time for ulcer healing (EVRA trial) </video> <video> Tonsillectomy | ENT |Steps | Indications and contradictions | post operative care | Complications Description: Tonsillectomy is the surgical removal of your tonsils. It’s done to treat sleep-related breathing issues or frequent infections. While surgeons perform tonsillectomies less often than they used to, the procedure is still common today. Tonsillectomy recovery takes up to Surgeons use many methods to perform tonsillectomies, including: Electrocautery: This method uses heat to remove the tonsils and stop any bleeding. Cold knife (steel) dissection: A surgeon uses a scalpel (traditional surgical knife) to remove your tonsils. Then, they’ll stop the bleeding with electrocautery (extreme heat) or sutures. Snare tonsillectomy: A surgeon uses a special surgical instrument called a snare, which has a thin wire loop at the end. Once your surgeon frees your tonsil, they’ll place this device around it to clamp it off. This helps reduce bleeding. Harmonic scalpel: This method uses ultrasonic vibrations to remove your tonsils and stop bleeding at the same time. Other methods include the use of radiofrequency ablation techniques, carbon dioxide lasers, and/or a microdebrider (which uses a combination of suction and cutting). How long does a tonsillectomy take? In most cases, a tonsillectomy takes about 20 to 30 minutes to complete. It could take longer in some instances. What happens after a tonsillectomy? After your tonsillectomy, your medical team will transfer you to a recovery area. There, your provider will check your vital signs (blood pressure, heart rate and blood oxygen levels) and make sure there are no postoperative complications. Tonsillectomy is usually an outpatient procedure. This means you can go home on the same day. Complications are rare, but if they arise, your provider might keep you in the hospital overnight to monitor your progress. What are the advantages of a tonsillectomy? Having a tonsillectomy can offer many benefits, including: Better sleep quality. Fewer infections. Improved quality of life. What are the risks of having a tonsillectomy? While complications are rare, they can happen. Some possible risks include: Infection. Excessive bleeding (either during or after tonsillectomy). Swelling of your tongue or the roof of your mouth. Reaction to anesthesia. Post-surgical bleeding. RECOVERY AND OUTLOOK What’s the tonsillectomy recovery time? On average, most people reach full recovery in about two weeks. Overall recovery time depends on several factors, including the type of tonsillectomy you had, your body’s healing capacity and whether you experienced any complications. Tonsillectomy recovery stages While healing looks a little different for everyone, here’s a general timeline of what to expect during tonsillectomy recovery: One to two days after tonsillectomy Throat pain. Low-grade fever. Fatigue. Bad breath. Difficulty speaking/hoarseness. Feeling of fullness in your throat (due to swelling). Three to five days after tonsillectomy Continued sore throat, which may worsen around day three or four. Fatigue. Five to 10 days after tonsillectomy Scabbing. Mild bleeding, which occurs when the scabs eventually fall off. What can I eat after a tonsillectomy? Drinking plenty of fluids is key to a successful tonsillectomy recovery. In addition, you’ll probably want to eat soft, cool foods for the first week. You can introduce solid foods once your comfort level allows, but you should avoid hard and spicy foods, as they can irritate the surgical area. Food and drink recommendations during tonsillectomy recovery include: Water, tea and juice. Ice cream. Smoothies. Yogurt. Pudding. Applesauce. Broth. Mashed potatoes. Scrambled eggs. </video> <video> OPHTHALMOLOGY INSTRUMENTS | KNOWING ANATOMY | EASY Description: Essential Ophthalmology Instruments Explained | Knowing Anatomy Hello, everyone! Welcome to Knowing Anatomy, your go-to channel for all things medical education. If you're preparing for practical exams, looking to revise quickly, or just curious about the tools used in ophthalmology, you're in the right place! In this video, we'll walk you through the essential ophthalmology instruments, their uses, and some practical tips. Feel free to adjust the playback speed to 1.5x or 1.25x if you're in a hurry. Don't forget to like this video, share it with your peers, and subscribe to Knowing Anatomy for more informative content. Your feedback and suggestions are always welcome, so drop them in the comments below! --- Tips for Practical Exams 1. Be thorough with the instrument’s name, structure, and use. 2. During vivas, always handle instruments gently and confidently. 3. Familiarize yourself with sterilization techniques for all instruments. --- Conclusion That’s it for today’s video on ophthalmology instruments! We hope this helps you better understand these tools and their practical applications. Remember, mastering these instruments takes time and practice, so keep at it. If you enjoyed this video, give it a thumbs up, share it with your fellow medicos, and hit the Subscribe button for more such videos. Don’t forget to turn on the notification bell so you never miss an update. Have any questions or suggestions for future videos? Drop them in the comments below. Thanks for watching, and see you in the next one! --- 👉 Subscribe to Knowing Anatomy for weekly medical education videos. 👉 Follow us on Instagram for quick tips and engaging content. 👉 Your feedback helps us grow, so let us know your thoughts below! </video> <video> LIPOMA | Video Lecture | KNOWING ANATOMY | Sebaceous Cyst | Surgery | Excision Description: A lipoma is a lump under the skin that occurs due to an overgrowth of fat cells. However, people may wish to remove a lipoma that causes pain, complications, or other symptoms. Some people also have concerns about the cosmetic appearance of lipomas. Lipomas can occur anywhere on the body where fat cells are present, but they tend to appear on the shoulders, chest, trunk, neck, thighs, and armpits. In less common cases, they may also form in internal organs, bones, or muscles. Lipomas feel soft and may move slightly under the skin when people press down on them. They usually grow slowly over a period of months or years and typically reach a size of around 2–3 centimeters (cm)Trusted Source. Occasionally, people have giant lipomas , which can grow to more than 10 cm. Some people inherit a faulty gene from their parents that can cause one or more lipomas. This is rare and is known as familial multiple lipomatosis. Lipomas can occur more frequently in people with specific medical conditions, such as: Gardner’s syndrome Cowden syndrome Madelung’s disease adiposis dolorosa also suggested that some lipomas may result from an injury that involves a substantial impact on the area. Symptoms A person with a lipoma will typically feel a soft, oval-shaped lump just beneath the skin. Lipomas are usually painless unless they affect joints, organs, nerves, or blood vessels. In most cases, they do not cause other symptoms. A person with a lipoma that occurs deeper under the skin may not be able to see or feel it. However, a deep lipoma may place pressure on internal organs or nerves and cause associated symptoms. For example, a person with a lipoma on or near the bowels may experience nausea, vomiting, and constipation. Health implications Lipomas are benign masses of fat cells. However, experts disagree about whether or not lipomas have the potential to become cancerous. A cancerous mass of fat cells is known as a liposarcoma. many experts have concluded that liposarcomas do not develop from lipomas but are, in fact, a different type of tumor. They believe that doctors sometimes mistake liposarcomas for lipomas. It is fairly common for a person to develop a lipoma. Experts estimate that around 1 percent of people have a lipoma. People who have a family relative with one or more lipomas have a higher risk of developing this condition. Lipomas are also more likely to occur in people aged between 40 and 60 years old Other risk factors for developing a lipoma may include: obesity high cholesterol diabetes liver disease glucose intolerance These changes might involve the lipoma: increasing in size or suddenly growing very quickly being painful becoming red or hot turning into a hard or immovable lump causing visible changes in the overlying skin Doctors can usually diagnose a lipoma with a simple physical examination. They may start by inspecting and feeling the lump. If the lipoma is large or painful, the doctor may order tests to check if it is cancerous. They may use the following tests: biopsy, where the doctor will remove a small sample of cells from the lump and examine the tissue under a microscope to look for signs of cancer ultrasound scan MRI scan CT scan </video> <video> Atrophic Rhinitis or Ozena | ENT | Video lecture Description: Atrophic rhinitis is a chronic disease of the nasal mucosa. The disease is characterized by abnormally wide nasal cavities, and its main symptoms are dryness, crusting, atrophy, fetor, and a paradoxical sensation of nasal congestion. The etiology of the disease remains unknown. Here, we propose that excessive evaporation of the mucous layer is the basis for the relentless nature of this disease. Airflow and water and heat transport were simulated using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques. The nasal geometry of an atrophic rhinitis patient was acquired from computed tomography scans before and after a procedure to narrow the nasal cavity. Simulations of air conditioning in the atrophic nose were compared with similar computations performed within the nasal geometries of four healthy humans. The excessively wide cavity of the patient generated abnormal flow patterns, which led to abnormal patterns of water fluxes across the wall. </video> <video> Pectoralis Major Muscle | Origin | Insertion | Nerve supply | Actions. Description: The pectoralis major is the superior most and largest muscle of the anterior chest wall. It is a thick, fan-shaped muscle that lies underneath the breast tissue and forms the anterior wall of the axilla. The pectoralis major is the most superficial muscle in the pectoral region. It is large and fan shaped, and is composed of a sternal head and a clavicular head: Attachments: Clavicular head – originates from the anterior surface of the medial clavicle. Sternocostal head – originates from the anterior surface of the sternum, the superior six costal cartilages and the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle. The distal attachment of both heads is onto the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus. Function: Adducts and medially rotates the upper limb and draws the scapula anteroinferiorly. The clavicular head also acts individually to flex the upper limb. Innervation: Lateral and medial pectoral nerves. </video>

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